Menschenrechte und Formanalyse. Zwischen materialistischer Kritik und emanzipatorischer Reformulierung
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Philipps-Universität Marburg
Abstract
Menschenrechte beanspruchen ihrem Wortsinn nach universelle Gültigkeit, als Rechte aller Menschen, die ihnen ihr Mensch-Sein ohne gesellschaftliche Grenzen ermöglichen sollen. Dabei sind Menschenrechte nicht geradlinig entstanden, sondern entwickeln sich aus verschiedenen historischen Kämpfen entlang gesellschaftlicher Widersprüche und Herrschaftsverhältnisse. Was unter anderem mit der Emanzipation des weißen, besitzenden Mannes von der Feudalherrschaft begann, hat seither vielen Emanzipationsbewegungen Vorschub geleistet, deren Kämpfe sich in das eingeschrieben haben, was als ‚Menschsein‘ definiert wird. Mit Aufkommen des bürgerlich-kapitalistischen Staates sind Menschenrechte von naturrechtlich begründeten Rechten in positives Recht übergegangen und haben so eine neue Form erhalten.
Gerade weil Menschenrechte heute allgegenwärtig sind, ist es notwendig sie aus einer gesellschaftskritischen Perspektive zu analysieren. Ziel ist es, einen Beitrag aus einem materialistischen Standpunkt heraus zu den in den letzten Jahrzehnten aufstrebenden Menschenrechts-Diskursen zu liefern und doch bei aller Kritik die Perspektive beizubehalten, an den Menschenrechten aus einem emanzipatorischen Anspruch heraus festzuhalten. Im Zentrum steht die Frage, inwiefern ihre Entstehung in der bürgerlich-kapitalistischen Gesellschaft sie in ihrer Universalität begrenzt. Andererseits soll ihr emanzipatorisches Potential, die Politisierung von Unterdrückung und Herrschaft durch die Bezugnahme emanzipatorischer Bewegungen auf sie, in den Vordergrund gerückt werden. Die Arbeit bezieht sich somit auf das grundsätzliche Problem, inwiefern materialistische, radial-emanzipatorische Gesellschaftskonzeptionen politisch-strategisch mit Menschenrechts-Ansätzen vereinbar sind. Gerade weil Marx und Engels keinen eigenständigen Menschenrechtsbegriff entwickelten, weist die materialistische Forschung hier eine Leerstelle auf, der sich bislang wenige Theoretiker:innen angenommen haben. Die Arbeit gibt jedoch keinen allgemeinen Überblick über Diskussionsstandpunkte sich als marxistisch verstehender Theorien, sondern liefert einen Beitrag zu einem eigenständigen materialistischen Menschenrechtsbegriff.
Es wird die Dialektik von Form und Inhalt als Methode gewählt, um mithilfe dieser die Grenzen und Widersprüchlichkeiten der gesellschaftlichen Formen und der menschenrechtlichen Inhalte aufzudecken. „Form“ wird im marxistischen Sinne als breit gefasster Strukturbegriff verwendet. Wichtig ist hierbei die Historisierung der gesellschaftlichen Formen und damit die Veränderbarkeit ihrer (Herrschafts-)Strukturen. Die Formanalyse der modernen Menschenrechte ist gewinnbringend, da so die abstrakt behandelten moralischen Menschenrechte konkreten historischen Dynamiken zugeführt werden und ihre herrschaftliche Durchsetzung greifbar wird. Deshalb werden die bürgerlichen Formen Gesellschaft, Staat und Recht hinsichtlich ihrer historischen Entstehung und deren Auswirkungen auf die den liberalen Menschenrechten zugrundeliegenden Konzepten von Freiheit, Gleichheit, Sicherheit und Eigentum analysiert.
Anschließend an diese Herrschaftskritik bleibt zu begründen, weshalb es dennoch für radikal-emanzipatorische Gesellschaftsansprüche gewinnbringend sein kann, am Begriff der Menschenrechte festzuhalten. Es wird erläutert, dass die gängige Begründung durch menschliche Würde nicht ausreichend ist, da sie unkonkret bleibt. Die alternative Begründung eines materialistischen Menschenrechtsverständnisses kann von der allgemeinen Annahme des Menschen als empathisches und soziales Wesen abgeleitet werden, dessen Leiden an konkreten, historischen gesellschaftlichen Herrschaftsformen minimiert werden soll. Für den Entwurf eines materialistischen Menschenrechtsbegriffs muss bedacht werden, dass ein festgeschriebenes Verständnis von Menschenrechten genau jene Bewegung entlang historischer Kontexte verhindert, die für ihre emanzipatorische Begründung und Ausrichtung erforderlich sind. Ein materialistisches Menschenrechtsverständnis zu entwickeln heißt, die wandelbaren und individuellen Bedürfnisse emanzipatorischer Kämpfe in Begriffen zu transzendieren. Emanzipation ist kein festgelegtes Ergebnis eines linearen Prozesses, sondern Resultat spezifisch historischer Kämpfe und ihrer materiellen Verdichtungen, ein Hinauswachsen über bestehende gesellschaftliche Formen.
Die emanzipatorische Ausrichtung des Menschenrechtsverständnisses als transzendierte Bedürfnisse bedeutet auch anzuerkennen, dass Menschenrechte nicht nur bestehende, menschenunwürdige Zustände kritisieren können. In ihrer Kritik ist ein Streben zu menschenrechtlichen Strukturveränderungen als Fundament politischer Praxis enthalten. Hier schließt ein materialistisch-emanzipatorischer Menschenrechtsansatz an den utopischen Gehalt Kritischer Theorie an, denn die transzendierten Menschenrechtsbegriffe sind anknüpfungsfähig für nachfolgende Emanzipationskämpfe und können so über ihre ehemaligen gesellschaftlichen Bezugsrahmen hinausgetragen werden. Menschenrechte mit utopischen Zielen zu vermitteln stellt den Versuch dar, das Utopische nicht allein abstrakt zu behandeln, sondern konkret zu füllen und das Versprechen auf eine Welt materiell realisierter Menschenrechte zu erneuern.
According to their literal meaning, human rights claim universal validity, as rights of all people that should enable them to be human in their social contexts. Human rights did not come into being in a straight line, but developed out of various historical struggles along social contradictions and power relations. What started with the emancipation of white, property-owning men from feudalism has since given rise to many emancipation movements and allowed these struggles to be concretely inscribed in what is defined as "being human". With the rise of the bourgeois-capitalist state, human rights have been transformed from rights based on natural law into positive law, thus taking on a new form. Precisely because the human rights-concept is ubiquity today, it is necessary to analyze human rights from a critical perspective. The intention is to make a contribution from a materialistic point of view to the human rights discourses that have been emerging in recent decades, and yet, despite all criticism, to hold on to the human rights from an emancipatory claim. The central question is how their emergence in bourgeois-capitalist society limits them in their universality. However, the aim is also to illuminate their emancipatory potential, which lies in the politicization of oppression and domination. The work refers to the fundamental problem of how far materialistic, radical-emancipatory conceptions of society are strategically compatible with human rights. Precisely because Marx and Engels did not develop an independent concept of human rights, this question is a research gap in materialist scholarship, which few theorists have addressed so far. However, this work does not give a general overview of the discussion points of theories that consider themselves as Marxist, but provides a contribution to an independent materialist concept of human rights. The chosen method is the dialectic of form and content in order to uncover the limits and contradictions of social forms and human rights content. "Form" is used in the Marxist sense as a broad structural concept. The importance is the historicization of social forms and thus the changeability of their (domination) structures. The analysis of the form of modern human rights is productive, because in this way, human rights, which are normally treated very abstractly, are reconnected with concrete historical dynamics and their violent enforcement becomes tangible. Therefore, the bourgeois forms of society, state, and law are analyzed in terms of their historical emergence and their impact on the concepts of freedom, equality, security, and property that underlie liberal human rights. Following this critique of domination, it remains to justify why it can nevertheless be productive for radical-emancipatory social claims to adhere to the concept of human rights. It is explained that the common justification by human dignity is not sufficient, because it remains unspecific. The alternative justification of a materialistic conception of human rights can be derived from the general assumption of human beings as empathetic and social beings whose suffering from concrete, historical forms of social domination should be minimized. For the development of a materialist conception of human rights, it must be kept in mind that a fixed understanding of human rights prevents precisely such a movement along historical contexts that is necessary for an emancipatory orientation. To develop a materialist understanding of human rights is to conceptually transcend the changeable and individual needs of emancipatory struggles. Emancipation is not a fixed outcome of a linear process, but rather the result of specific historical struggles and their material condensations, an outgrowing of existing social forms. The emancipatory orientation of the understanding of human rights as transcended needs also means recognizing that human rights cannot only criticize existing conditions that are inhumane. Contained in their critique is a striving toward structural changes that would materially realize human rights as the foundation of political practice. Here, a materialistic-emancipatory approach to human rights is connected to the utopian content of critical theory, because the transcended concepts of human rights are capable of being linked to subsequent struggles for emancipation and can thus be carried beyond their former societal frames of reference. Mediating human rights with utopian goals represents an attempt not to treat the utopian abstractly, but to fill it concretely and to renew the promise of a world in which human rights are materially realized.
According to their literal meaning, human rights claim universal validity, as rights of all people that should enable them to be human in their social contexts. Human rights did not come into being in a straight line, but developed out of various historical struggles along social contradictions and power relations. What started with the emancipation of white, property-owning men from feudalism has since given rise to many emancipation movements and allowed these struggles to be concretely inscribed in what is defined as "being human". With the rise of the bourgeois-capitalist state, human rights have been transformed from rights based on natural law into positive law, thus taking on a new form. Precisely because the human rights-concept is ubiquity today, it is necessary to analyze human rights from a critical perspective. The intention is to make a contribution from a materialistic point of view to the human rights discourses that have been emerging in recent decades, and yet, despite all criticism, to hold on to the human rights from an emancipatory claim. The central question is how their emergence in bourgeois-capitalist society limits them in their universality. However, the aim is also to illuminate their emancipatory potential, which lies in the politicization of oppression and domination. The work refers to the fundamental problem of how far materialistic, radical-emancipatory conceptions of society are strategically compatible with human rights. Precisely because Marx and Engels did not develop an independent concept of human rights, this question is a research gap in materialist scholarship, which few theorists have addressed so far. However, this work does not give a general overview of the discussion points of theories that consider themselves as Marxist, but provides a contribution to an independent materialist concept of human rights. The chosen method is the dialectic of form and content in order to uncover the limits and contradictions of social forms and human rights content. "Form" is used in the Marxist sense as a broad structural concept. The importance is the historicization of social forms and thus the changeability of their (domination) structures. The analysis of the form of modern human rights is productive, because in this way, human rights, which are normally treated very abstractly, are reconnected with concrete historical dynamics and their violent enforcement becomes tangible. Therefore, the bourgeois forms of society, state, and law are analyzed in terms of their historical emergence and their impact on the concepts of freedom, equality, security, and property that underlie liberal human rights. Following this critique of domination, it remains to justify why it can nevertheless be productive for radical-emancipatory social claims to adhere to the concept of human rights. It is explained that the common justification by human dignity is not sufficient, because it remains unspecific. The alternative justification of a materialistic conception of human rights can be derived from the general assumption of human beings as empathetic and social beings whose suffering from concrete, historical forms of social domination should be minimized. For the development of a materialist conception of human rights, it must be kept in mind that a fixed understanding of human rights prevents precisely such a movement along historical contexts that is necessary for an emancipatory orientation. To develop a materialist understanding of human rights is to conceptually transcend the changeable and individual needs of emancipatory struggles. Emancipation is not a fixed outcome of a linear process, but rather the result of specific historical struggles and their material condensations, an outgrowing of existing social forms. The emancipatory orientation of the understanding of human rights as transcended needs also means recognizing that human rights cannot only criticize existing conditions that are inhumane. Contained in their critique is a striving toward structural changes that would materially realize human rights as the foundation of political practice. Here, a materialistic-emancipatory approach to human rights is connected to the utopian content of critical theory, because the transcended concepts of human rights are capable of being linked to subsequent struggles for emancipation and can thus be carried beyond their former societal frames of reference. Mediating human rights with utopian goals represents an attempt not to treat the utopian abstractly, but to fill it concretely and to renew the promise of a world in which human rights are materially realized.
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Keywords
Menschenrechte, Property, Human Rights, Equality, Eigentum, Dominion, Declaration of Human Righ, French Revolution, Emanzipation, Dialectics, Security, Kritische Theorie, Freiheit, Emancipation, Sicherheit, Dialektik, Gleichheit, Critical Theory, Herrschaft, Karl Marx, Französische Revolution, Freedom